Punctuations
Incorrect: I'm truly
shocked by your behavior!.
With
no hyphen, we could only guess: Was the vehicle report stolen, or was it a
report on stolen vehicles?
T.G.I. Friday’s menu was recently changed
Punctuation
is used to create sense, clarity and stress in sentences. You use punctuation
marks to structure and organize your writing.
The
15 Punctuation Marks
•Period
•
Question Mark
•
Exclamation Mark
•
En Dash
•
Em
Dash
•
Hyphen
•
Semi Colon
•
Colon
•Braces
•
Brackets
•
Parentheses
•
Ellipsis
•
Quotation Mark
•
Apostrophe
•
Comma
Period
.
A period is a full stop. It is a
punctuation mark at the end of a sentence. It shows that the sentence has
finished.
Rule
1.
Use a period at the end of a complete sentence that is a statement.
Example: I know him
well.
Rule
2.
If the last item in the sentence is an abbreviation that ends in a period, do
not follow it with another period.
Incorrect: This is
Alice Smith, M.D..
Correct: This is Alice
Smith, M.D.
Correct: Please shop, cook,
etc. We will do the laundry.
Question
Mark ?
The question mark [ ? ] (also known
as interrogation point, query, or eroteme
in journalism) is a punctuation mark that indicates an interrogative sentences.
Rule
1.
Use a question mark only after a direct question.
Correct: Will you go with me?
Incorrect: I'm asking if you will go with me?
Rule
2.
A question mark replaces a period at the end of a sentence.
Incorrect: Will you go with me?.
Rule
3a. Avoid
the common trap of using question marks with indirect questions, which are
statements that contain questions. Use a period after an indirect question.
Incorrect: I wonder if he would go with me?
Correct: I wonder if he would go with me.
Rule
3b. Some
sentences are statements in the form of a question. They are called rhetorical
questions because they don't require or expect an answer.
Examples:
Why
don't you take a break.
Would
you kids knock it off.
What
wouldn't I do for you!
Rule
4.
Use a question mark when a sentence is half statement and half question.
Example:
You do care, don't you?
Rule
5. The
placement of question marks with quotation marks follows logic. If a question
is within the quoted material, a question mark should be placed inside the
quotation marks.
Examples:
She
asked, "Will you still be my friend?"
The
question is part of the quotation.
Do
you agree with the saying, "All's fair in love and war"?
The
question is outside the quotation.
Exclamation
Point !
The exclamation mark (Commonwealth
English) or exclamation point (American English) is a punctuation mark usually
used after an interjection or exclamation to indicate strong feelings or high
volume (shouting), and often marks the end of a sentence
Rule
1.
Use an exclamation point to show emotion, emphasis, or surprise.
Examples:
I'm
truly shocked by your behavior!
Yay! We won!
Rule
2.
An exclamation point replaces a period at the end of a sentence.
Rule
3.
Do not use an exclamation point in formal business writing.
Rule
4.
Overuse of exclamation points is a sign of undisciplined writing. Do not use
even one of these marks unless you're convinced it is justified.
Semicolon
;
It's no accident that a semicolon
is a period atop a comma. Like commas, semicolons indicate an audible
pause—slightly longer than a comma's, but short of a period's full stop.
Rule
1.
A semicolon can replace a period if the writer wishes to narrow the gap between
two closely linked sentences.
Examples:
Call
me tomorrow; you can give me an answer then.
We
have paid our dues; we expect all the privileges listed in the contract.
Rule
2.
Use a semicolon before such words and terms as namely, however, therefore, that
is, i.e., for example, e.g., for instance, etc., when they introduce a complete
sentence. It is also preferable to use a comma after these words and terms.
Example:
Bring any two items; however, sleeping bags and tents are in short supply.
Rule
3.
Use a semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more of the units
contain commas.
Incorrect: The conference has people who have come from Moscow,
Idaho, Springfield, California, Alamo, Tennessee, and other places as well.
Note that with only commas, that
sentence is hopeless.
Correct: The conference has people who have come from Moscow,
Idaho; Springfield, California; Alamo, Tennessee; and other places as well.
Rule
4.
A semicolon may be used between independent clauses joined by a
connector, such as and, but, or,
nor, etc., when one or more commas appear in
the first clause.
Example:
When I finish here, and I will soon, I'll be glad to help you; and that is a
promise
I will keep.
Colon
:
A colon means "that is to
say" or "here's what I mean." Colons and semicolons should never
be used interchangeably.
Rule
1.
Use a colon to introduce a series of items. Do not capitalize the first item
after the colon (unless it's a proper noun).
Examples:
You
may be required to bring many things: sleeping bags, pans, utensils, and warm
clothing.
I
want the following items: butter, sugar, and flour.
Rule
2.
Avoid using a colon before a list when it directly follows a verb or
preposition.
Incorrect: I want: butter, sugar, and flour.
Correct: I want the following: butter, sugar, and flour.
Incorrect: I've seen the greats, including: Barrymore, Guinness,
and Streep.
Correct: I've seen the greats, including Barrymore, Guinness, and Streep.
Rule
3.
When listing items one by one, one per line, following a colon, capitalization
and ending punctuation are optional when using single words or phrases preceded
by letters, numbers, or bullet points. If each point is a complete sentence,
capitalize the
first word and end the sentence
with appropriate ending punctuation. Otherwise, there are no hard and fast
rules, except be consistent.
Examples:
I
want an assistant who can do the following:
input
data
write
reports
complete
tax forms
The
following are requested:
Wool
sweaters for possible cold weather.
Wet
suits for snorkeling.
Introductions
to the local dignitaries.
These
are the pool rules:
Do
not run.
If
you see unsafe behavior, report it to the lifeguard.
Did
you remember your towel?
Have
fun!
Rule
4.
A colon instead of a semicolon may be used between independent clauses when the
second sentence explains, illustrates, paraphrases, or expands on the first
sentence.
Example:
He got what he worked for: he really earned that promotion.
If a complete sentence follows a
colon, as in the previous example, it is up to the writer to decide whether to
capitalize the first word. Capitalizing a sentence after a colon is generally a
judgment call; if what follows a colon is closely related to what precedes it,
there is no need for a capital.
Example:
He got what he worked for: a promotion.
Rule
5.
A colon may be used to introduce a long quotation. Some style manuals say
to indent one-half inch on both the
left and right margins; others say to indent only
on the left margin. Quotation marks
are not used.
Example:
The author of Touched, Jane Straus, wrote in the first chapter: Georgia went
back to her bed and stared at the intricate patterns of burned moth wings in
the translucent glass of the overhead light. Her father was in "hyper
mode" again where nothing could calm him down.
Parentheses
()
It is used in writing to mark off
an interjected explanatory or qualifying remark.
Rule
1.
Use parentheses to enclose information that clarifies or is used as an aside.
Example:
He finally answered (after taking five minutes to think) that he did not
understand the question.
If material in parentheses ends a
sentence, the period goes after the parentheses.
Example:
He gave me a nice bonus ($500).
Rule
2a. Periods
go inside parentheses only if an entire sentence is inside the parentheses.
Example:
Please read the analysis. (You'll be amazed.)
This is a rule with a lot of wiggle
room. An entire sentence in parentheses is often acceptable without an enclosed
period:
Example:
Please read the analysis (you'll be amazed).
Rule
2b. Take
care to punctuate correctly when punctuation is required both inside and
outside parentheses.
Example:
You are late (aren't you?).
Rule
3.
Parentheses, despite appearances, are not part of the subject.
Example:
Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.
If this seems awkward, try
rewriting the sentence:
Example:
Joe (accompanied by his trusty mutt) was always welcome.
Rule
4.
Commas are more likely to follow parentheses than precede them.
Incorrect: When he got home, (it was already dark outside) he fixed
dinner.
Correct: When he got home (it was already dark outside), he fixed
dinner.
Brackets
[]
Brackets are far less common than
parentheses, and they are only used in special cases. Brackets (like single
quotation marks) are used exclusively within quoted material.
Rule
1. Brackets
are interruptions. When we see them, we know they've been added by someone
else. They are used to explain or comment on the quotation.
Examples:
"Four score and seven [today we'd say eighty-seven] years ago..."
"Bill shook hands with [his son] Al."
"Four score and seven [today we'd say eighty-seven] years ago..."
"Bill shook hands with [his son] Al."
Rule
2. When
quoting something that has a spelling or grammar mistake or presents material
in a confusing way, insert the term sic in
italics and enclose it in nonitalic
(unless the surrounding text is italic) brackets.
Sic ("thus"
in Latin) is shorthand for, "This is exactly what the original material
says.“
Example: She
wrote, "I would rather die then [sic] be seen wearing the same outfit
as my sister."
The [sic]
indicates that then was mistakenly used instead
of than.
Rule
3. In
formal writing, brackets are often used to maintain the integrity of both a
quotation and the sentences others use it in.
Example: "[T]he
better angels of our nature" gave a powerful ending to Lincoln's first
inaugural address.
Lincoln's memorable phrase came
midsentence, so the word the was
not originally capitalized.
Ellipsis
...
An ellipsis is a punctuation mark
consisting of three dots. Use an ellipsis when omitting a word, phrase, line,
paragraph, or more from a quoted passage. Ellipses save space or remove
material that is less relevant. They are useful in getting right to the point
without delay or distraction
Full
quotation: "Today, after hours of careful thought, we vetoed the
bill."
With
ellipsis: "Today…we vetoed the bill.“
Although ellipses are used in many
ways, the three-dot method is the simplest.
Newspapers, magazines, and books of
fiction and nonfiction use various approaches that they find suitable.
Example:
I don't know…I'm not sure.
Others enclose the ellipsis with a
space on each side.
Example:
I don't know … I'm not sure.
Still others put a space either
directly before or directly after the ellipsis.
Examples:
I
don't know …I'm not sure.
I
don't know… I'm not sure.
Rule
1. Many
writers use an ellipsis whether the omission occurs at the beginning of a
sentence, in the middle of a sentence, or between sentences.
A common way to delete the
beginning of a sentence is to follow the opening
quotation mark with an ellipsis,
plus a bracketed capital letter
Example:
"…[A]fter
hours of careful thought,
we
vetoed the bill.“
Other writers omit the ellipsis in
such cases, feeling the bracketed capital letter gets the point across.
Rule
2. Ellipses
can express hesitation, changes of mood, suspense, or thoughts
trailing off. Writers also use
ellipses to indicate a pause or wavering in an otherwise straightforward
sentence.
Examples:
I
don't know…I'm not sure.
Pride
is one thing, but what happens if she…?
He said, "I…really don't…understand
this."
En
dash –
The en dash is used to indicate
spans or differentiation, where it may be considered to replace "and"
or "to“.
Span
or range of numbers
The en dash is used to represent a
span or range of numbers, dates, or time. There should be no space between the
en dash and the adjacent material. Depending on the context, the en dash is
read as “to” or “through.”
The
2010–2011 season was our best yet.
You will find this material in chapters 8–12.
If you introduce a span or range
with words such as from or between, do not use the en dash.
Correct:
She served as secretary of state from 1996 to 1999.
Incorrect:
She served as secretary of state from 1996–1999.
The en dash is used to report
scores or results of contests.
The
president’s nominee was confirmed by the Senate, which voted 62–38 along party
lines.
UCLA
beat USC 28–14 in the final game of the regular season.
The en dash can also be used
between words to represent conflict, connection, or direction.
The
liberal–conservative debate.
The
Los Angeles–London flight.
There
is a north–south railway in the same area as the highway that runs east–west.
Compound
Adjectives
When a compound adjective is formed
with an element that is itself an open compound or hyphenated compound, some
writers replace the customary hyphen with an en dash. This is an aesthetic
choice more than anything. For more on the hyphenation of compound adjectives,
see here.
Hyphen:
She is an award-winning novelist.
En
dash: She is a National Book Award–winning novelist.
Hyphen:
It was just one of many changes in this post-Clinton era.
En
dash: It was just one of many changes in this post–New Deal era.
Hyphen:
They were a bunch of college-educated snobs.
En
dash: They were a bunch of prep school–educated snobs.
Hyphen:
He submitted his manuscript to a print-only publisher.
En
dash: He submitted his manuscript to an e-book–only publisher.
Em dash —
The em
dash is perhaps the most versatile punctuation mark. Depending on the context,
the em
dash can take the place of commas, parentheses, or colons—in each case to
slightly different effect.
Notwithstanding its versatility,
the em
dash is best limited to two appearances per sentence. Otherwise, confusion
rather than clarity is likely to result.
•Em
dashes in place of commas
A pair of em
dashes can be used in place of commas to enhance readability. Note, however,
that dashes are always more emphatic than commas.
And
yet, when the car was finally delivered—nearly three months after it was
ordered—she decided she no longer wanted it, leaving the dealer with an oddly
equipped car that would be difficult to sell.
•Em
dashes in place of parentheses
A pair of em
dashes can replace a pair of parentheses. Dashes are considered less formal
than parentheses; they are also more intrusive. If you want to draw attention
to the parenthetical content, use dashes. If you want to include the
parenthetical content more subtly, use parentheses.
Upon
discovering the errors (all 124 of them), the publisher immediately recalled
the books.
Upon
discovering the errors—all 124 of them—the publisher immediately recalled the
books.
When used in place of parentheses
at the end of a sentence, only a single dash is used.
After
three weeks on set, the cast was fed up with his direction (or, rather, lack of
direction).
After
three weeks on set, the cast was fed up with his direction—or, rather, lack of
direction.
•The em dash in place of a colon
The em
dash can be used in place of a colon when you want to emphasize the conclusion
of your sentence. The dash is less formal than the colon.
After
months of deliberation, the jurors reached a unanimous verdict—guilty.
The
white sand, the warm water, the sparkling sun—this is what brought them to
Hawaii.
•Multiple em dashes
Two em
dashes can be used to indicate missing portions of a word, whether unknown or
intentionally omitted.
Mr.
J—— testified that the defendant yelled, “Die, a——,” before pulling the
trigger.
From
the faded and water-damaged note, we made out only this: “Was ne——y going to
m—— K——, but now ——t.”
When an entire word is missing,
either two or three em dashes can be used. Whichever
length you choose, use it consistently throughout your document. Surrounding
punctuation should be placed as usual.
The
juvenile defendant, ———, was arraigned yesterday.
•Spaces with the em dash
The em
dash is typically used without spaces on either side, and that is the style
used in this guide. Most newspapers, however, set the em
dash off with a single space on each side.
Most
newspapers — and all that follow AP style — insert a space before and after the
em
dash.
Hyphens
-
There are two commandments about
this misunderstood punctuation mark. First, hyphens must never be used
interchangeably with dashes which are noticeably longer. Second, there should
never be spaces around hyphens.
Incorrect:
300—325 people
Incorrect:
300 - 325 people
Correct:
300-325 people
Hyphens' main purpose is to glue
words together. They notify the reader that two or more elements in a sentence
are linked. Although there are rules and customs governing hyphens, there are
also situations when writers must decide whether to add them for clarity.
Rule 1. Generally, hyphenate two or
more words when they come before a noun they modify and act as a single idea.
This is called a compound adjective.
Examples:
an
off-campus apartment
state-of-the-art
design
When a compound adjective follows a
noun, a hyphen may or may not be necessary.
Example:
The apartment is off campus.
However, some established compound
adjectives are always hyphenated.
Example:
The design is state-of-the-art.
Rule
2a. A
hyphen is frequently required when forming original compound verbs for
vivid writing, humor, or special
situations.
Examples:
The
slacker video-gamed his way through life.
Queen
Victoria throne-sat for six decades.
Rule
2b. When
writing out new, original, or unusual compound nouns, writers
should hyphenate whenever doing so
avoids confusion.
Examples:
I
changed my diet and became a no-meater.
No-meater
is too confusing without the hyphen.
Rule
3. An
often overlooked rule for hyphens: The adverb very and adverbs ending in -ly
are not hyphenated.
Incorrect:
the very-elegant watch
Incorrect:
the finely-tuned watch
This rule applies only to adverbs.
The following two sentences are correct because the -ly
words are adjectives rather than adverbs:
Correct:
the friendly-looking dog
Correct:
a family-owned cafe
Rule
4. Hyphens
are often used to tell the ages of people and things. A handy rule, whether
writing about years, months, or any other period of time, is to use hyphens
unless the period of time (years, months, weeks, days) is written in plural
form:
With
hyphens:
We
have a two-year-old child.
We
have a two-year-old.
No
hyphens: The child is two years old. (Because years is plural.)
Exception:
The child is one year old. (Or day, week, month, etc.)
Note that when hyphens are involved
in expressing ages, two hyphens are required.
Incorrect:
We have a two-year old child.
Without the second hyphen, the
sentence is about an "old child."
Rule
5. Never
hesitate to add a hyphen if it solves a possible problem. Following are two
examples of well-advised hyphens:
I
have a few more important things to do.
I
have a few more-important things to do.
Without the hyphen, it's impossible
to tell whether the sentence is about a few things that are more important or a
few more things that are all equally important.
He
returned the stolen vehicle report.
He
returned the stolen-vehicle report.
Rule
6. When
using numbers, hyphenate spans or estimates of time, distance, or other
quantities. Remember not to use spaces around hyphens.
Examples:
3:15-3:45
p.m.
1999-2016
300-325
people
Rule
7. Hyphenate
most double last names.
Example:
Sir Winthrop Heinz-Eakins will attend.
Rule
8.
Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine.
Examples:
thirty-two
children
one
thousand two hundred twenty-one dollars
Rule
9. Hyphenate
all spelled-out fractions.
Example:
more than two-thirds of registered voters
Rule
10. As
important as hyphens are to clear writing, they can become an annoyance if
overused. Avoid adding hyphens when the meaning is clear. Many phrases are so
familiar (e.g., high school,
twentieth century, one hundred percent) that they can go before a noun without
risk of confusing the reader.
Examples:
a
high school senior
a
twentieth century throwback
one hundred percent correct
•Hyphens with Prefixes and Suffixes
A prefix (a-, un-, de-, ab-,
sub-, post-, anti-, etc.) is a letter or set of letters placed before a root
word. The word prefix itself contains the prefix pre-. Prefixes expand or
change a word's meaning, sometimes radically: the prefixes a-, un-, and dis-,
for
example, change words into their
opposites (e.g., political, apolitical; friendly, unfriendly; honor, dishonor).
Rule
1. Hyphenate
prefixes when they come before proper nouns or proper adjectives.
Examples:
trans-American
mid-July
Rule
2. For
clarity, many writers hyphenate prefixes ending in a vowel when the root word
begins with the same letter.
Example:
ultra-ambitious
semi-invalid
re-elect
Rule
3. Hyphenate
all words beginning with the prefixes self-, ex- (i.e., former), and all-.
Examples:
self-assured
ex-mayor
all-knowing
Rule 4. Use a hyphen with the
prefix re- when omitting the hyphen would cause confusion with another word.
Examples:
Will
she recover from her illness?
I
have re-covered the sofa twice.
Omitting the hyphen would cause
confusion with recover.
I
must re-press the shirt.
Omitting the hyphen would cause
confusion with repress.
The
stamps have been reissued.
A hyphen after re- is not needed
because there is no confusion with another word.
Rule 5. Writers often hyphenate
prefixes when they feel a word might be distracting or confusing without the
hyphen.
Examples:
de-ice
With no hyphen we get deice, which
might stump readers.
co-worker
With no hyphen we get coworker,
which could be distracting because it starts withcow.
A suffix (-y, -er,
-ism, -able, etc.) is a letter or set of letters that follows a root word.
Suffixes form new words or alter the original word to perform a different task.
For example, the noun scandal can be made into the adjective scandalous by
adding the suffix -ous. It becomes the verb scandalize by
adding the suffix -ize.
Rule
1. Suffixes
are not usually hyphenated. Some exceptions: -style, -elect, -free, -
based.
Examples:
Modernist-style
paintings
Mayor-elect
Smith
sugar-free
soda
oil-based
sludge
Rule
2. For
clarity, writers often hyphenate when the last letter in the root word is the
same as the first letter in the suffix.
Examples:
graffiti-ism
wiretap-proof
Rule
3. Use
discretion—and sometimes a dictionary—before deciding to place a
hyphen before a suffix. But do not
hesitate to hyphenate a rare usage if it avoids
confusion.
Examples:
the
annual dance-athon
an
eel-esque sea
creature
Apostrophe
‘
1.
Contractions
Contractions (e.g., let’s, don’t,
couldn’t, it’s, she’s) have a bad reputation. Many argue that they have no
place at all in formal writing. You should, of course, observe your publisher’s
or instructor’s requirements. An absolute avoidance of contractions, however,
is likely to make your writing appear stilted and unwelcoming.
Example:
It’s often said that every dog has its day.
2.
Plural
The apostrophe is seldom used to
form a plural noun.
Incorrect: Since the 1980’s,
the Thomas’s, both of whom have multiple PhD’s, sell old book’s and magazine’s
at the fair on Saturday’s and Sunday’s.
Correct: Since the 1980s, the Thomases, both of whom have multiple PhDs, sell old books and magazines at
the fair on Saturdays and Sundays.
The rare exception to the rule is
when certain abbreviations, letters, or words are used as nouns, as in the
following examples. Unless the apostrophe is needed to avoid misreading or
confusion, omit it.
3.
Possessives
The general rule is that the
possessive of a singular noun is formed by adding an apostrophe and s, whether
the singular noun ends in s or not.
the
lawyer’s fee
the child’s toy
Xerox’s sales manager
Tom Jones’s first album
Jesus’s disciples
Aeschylus’s finest drama
anyone’s guess
a week's vacation
The possessive of a plural noun is
formed by adding only an apostrophe when the noun ends in s, and by adding both
an apostrophe and s when it ends in a letter other than s.
excessive
lawyers’ fees
children’s toys
the twins’ parents
the student teachers’ supervisor
the Smiths’ vacation house
Use only an apostrophe for places
or names that are singular but have a final word in plural form and ending with
an s.
Beverly
Hills’ current mayor
the United States’ lingering debt problem
Cisco Systems’ CEO
Nouns that end in an s sound take
only an apostrophe when they are followed by sake.
for goodness’ sake
for conscience’ sake
A proper noun that is already in
possessive form is left as is.
Joint possession is indicated by a
single apostrophe.
Robert
Smith and Rebecca Green’s psychology textbook. (they coauthored the book)
Stanley
and Scarlett’s house. (they share the house)
Individual possession is indicated
by apostrophes for each possessor.
France’s
and Italy’s domestic policies are diverging.
Chris’s
and John’s houses were designed by the same architect.
Avoid awkward possessives
Correct
but awkward: St. Patrick’s Cathedral’s Fifth Avenue entrance.
Better:
The Fifth Avenue entrance for St. Patrick’s Cathedral.
The apostrophe should never be
separated from the word to which it attaches by adjacent punctuation.
Correct:
The house on the left is the Smiths’, but the house at the end of the street is
the Whites’.
Incorrect:
The house on the left is the Smiths,’ but the house at the end of the street is
the Whites.’
Commas ,
Commas customarily indicate a brief
pause; they're not as final as periods.
Rule
1. Use
commas to separate words and word groups with a series of three or more. (You
may or may not use a comma before “and”; however, be sure to use only one style
consistently throughout the whole document.)
Example:
My estate is to be split among my sister, daughter, son, and nephew.
My
estate is to be split among my sister, daughter, son and nephew.
Rule
2. Use
a comma to separate two adjectives when the word and can be inserted between
them.
Examples:
He is a strong, healthy man.
We
stayed at an expensive summer resort.
Rule
3. Use
a comma when an -ly adjective is used with other
adjectives.
Examples:
Felix was a lonely, young boy.I get headaches in brightly lit rooms.
Rule
4.
Use commas before or surrounding the name or title of a person directly
addressed.
Examples:
Will
you, Aisha, do that assignment for me?
Yes,
Doctor, I will.
NOTE: Capitalize a title when
directly addressing someone.
Rule
5a. Use
a comma to separate the day of the month from the year and after the year.
Example:
Kathleen
met her husband on December 5, 2003, in Mill Valley, California.
Rule
5b. If
any part of the date is omitted, leave out the comma.
Example:
They
met in December 2003 in Mill Valley.
Rule
6. Use
a comma to separate the city from the state and after the state in a document.
If you use the two-letter capitalized form of a state in a document, you do not
need a comma after the state.
I
lived in San Francisco, California, for 20 years.
I
lived in San Francisco, CA for 20 years.
Rule
7. Use
commas to surround degrees or titles used with names. Commas are no longer
required around Jr. and Sr. Commas never set off II, III, and so forth.
Al
Mooney, M.D., knew Sam Sunny Jr. and Charles Starr III.
Rule
8. Use
commas to set off expressions that interrupt sentence flow.
I am,
as you have probably noticed, very nervous about this.
Rule
9. When
starting a sentence with a weak clause, use a comma after it. Conversely, do
not use a comma when the sentence starts with a strong clause followed by a
weak clause.
If
you are not sure about this, let me know now.
Let me know now if you are not sure about
this.
Rule
10. Use
a comma after phrases of more than three words that begin a sentence. If the
phrase has fewer than three words, the comma is optional.
To
apply for this job, you must have previous experience
On
February 14 many couples give each other candy or flowers.
On
February 14, many couples give each other candy or flowers.
Rule
11. If
something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description following it
is considered nonessential and should be surrounded by commas.
Freddy,
who has a limp, was in an auto accident.
Freddy is named, so the description
is not essential.
The
boy who has a limp was in an auto accident.
We do not know which boy is being
referred to without further description; therefore, no commas are used.
Rule
12. Use
a comma to separate two strong clauses joined by a coordinating
conjunction--and, or, but, for, nor. You can omit the comma if the clauses are
both short.
I
have painted the entire house, but he is still working on sanding the doors. I
paint and he writes.
Rule
13. Use
the comma to separate two sentences if it will help avoid confusion.
I
chose the colors red and green, and blue was his first choice.
Rule
14. A
comma splice is an error caused by joining two strong clauses with only a comma
instead of separating the clauses with a conjunction, a semicolon, or a period.
A run-on sentence, which is incorrect, is created by joining two strong clauses
without any punctuation.
Incorrect: Time flies when we are having fun, we are always having
fun. (Comma splice)
Time flies when we are having fun we are always having fun. (Run-on
sentence)
Correct: Time flies when we are having fun; we are always having
fun.
Time flies when we are having fun, and we are always having fun.
(Comma is optional because both strong clauses are short.)
Time flies when we are having fun. We are always having fun.
Rule
15. If
the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, do not use a comma.
He
thought quickly but still did not answer correctly.
Rule
16. Use
commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations shorter than three lines.
He
actually said, "I do not care."
"Why,"
I asked, "do you always forget to do it?"
Rule
17. Use
a comma to separate a statement from a question.
I can
go, can't I?
Rule
18. Use
a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence.
That
is my money, not yours.
Rule
19. Use
a comma when beginning sentences with introductory
words such as well, now, or yes.
Yes,
I do need that report.
Well,
I never thought I'd live to see the day…
Rule
20.
Use commas surrounding words such as therefore and however when they are used
as interrupters.
I
would, therefore, like a response.
I
would be happy, however, to volunteer for the Red Cross.
Rule
21.
Use either a comma or a semicolon before introductory words such as namely,
that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance when they are followed by a
series of items. Use a comma after the introductory word.
You
may be required to bring many items, e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm
clothing.
You may be required to bring many items; 
Diacritics
Diacritics
•A mark near or through an orthographic or
phonetic character or combination of characters indicating a phonetic value
different from that given the unmarked or otherwise element
Café
Jalapeño
Fiancée
Naïve
Ménage à trois
Cliché
Emeli Sandé
Acute
Accent
Used
with certain French loanwords to indicate that the final vowel is pronounced.
Café
Cliché
Saké
Grave
Accent
Occasionally used in poetry to
indicate that a normally silent vowel should be pronounced
Pickèd
Lookèd
cursèd
crème
Cedilla
Used below a letter to modify their
pronunciation
Façade
Garçon
Circumflex
Marks the former presence of a
consonant that was deleted and is no longer pronounced.
Ancêtre = ancestor
Hôpital=hospital
In IPA it used to mark tone contour
Marks a long vowel
Diaeresis/Umlaut
Used with certain names and words
as a guide to pronunciation
Indicating a second syllable in two
consecutive vowels
Are diacritics marking two distinct
phonological phenomena
Coöperate
Reëlect
Macron
Dictionary notation to signify long
vowel sounds
English poetry marking, lēad
pronounced ‘leed’ not ‘led’
Breve
Shortening vowels
Drŏll pronounced drol not drowle
Tilde
Used as a diacritical mark placed
over a letter to indicate a change in pronunciation, such as nasalization.
El Niño
Señor
Apostrophe
As a glottal stop
Mark of palatalization
Technically there are only three
accent marks: the acute accent, the grave accent, and the circumflex. Apart
from the breve and the macron, which are termed pronunciation marks, the other
marks added to certain letters are true diacriticics.
For foreign words that have become
common in English, no common rules can be given for when to retain an accent,
or a diacritic and when to drop it.
Cliché >>> cliche
Accents and diacritics should be
retained in foreign place names and personal names
In
swede they have three extra vowels
(three
extra vowels)
Ä aa
Ä ae
Ö oe
These
three are completely different letters with specific pronounciation attached to
them
(Thus we cannot omit the diacritics and
just write a and o because this will change the pronunciation and meaning.
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